Author: UCSD Ultrasound

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Focused Transesophageal Echocardiography by Emergency Physicians is Feasible and Clinically Influential

Background

Cardiac ultrasound is frequently used in the emergency department (ED) to effectively identify  pericardial effusion, differentiate causes of shock, assess left ventricular function, and guide cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). However, cardiac ultrasound employed in the ED is usually transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) as opposed to transesophageal echocardiography (TEE). TTE can often be limited, especially in critically ill patients and patients with high BMI. TEE offers the ability to reliably obtain continuous high-quality images that can be performed without interrupting CPR. Despite this, TEE is not often employed in the ED due to a variety of factors, including transducer cost, invasiveness, physician training, and hospital culture.

Focused Transesophageal Echocardiography by Emergency Physicians is Feasible and Clinically Influential: Observational Results from a Novel Ultrasound Program

 

Clinical Question

Is TEE performed by emergency medicine trained  physicians, in the emergency department setting, feasible and does it provide clinical utility?

Methods & Study Design

  • Design
    • Retrospective Review
  • Population
    • Study performed during a TEE in the ED pilot program by an academic emergency medicine program comprising 2 separate EDs, one of which is a regional trauma center.
    • All patients who underwent TEE in the ED during the 2-year program period were included.
  • Exclusion criteria
    • None
  • Intervention
    • TEE was performed on critically ill, intubated patients. Most commonly, the mid-esophageal 4-chamber view, followed by the transgastric short axis, mid-esophageal long axis, and bicaval views  were obtained.
  • OutcomesThe clinical impact of TEE, divided into two categories:
      • Diagnostic influence on clinical decision making
      • Therapeutic influence on procedures, medications, fluids, and CPR

Results

    • 54 TEE exams performed with 100% probe insertion success rate
      • 83% on first attempt
      • 11% required multiple attempts
      • 6% required use of a laryngoscope
      • 98% of exams produced images that were interpretable by the operator
    • TEE was diagnostically influential in 78% of cases
      • Excluded cardiac cause of arrest (56%)
      • Identified depressed left ventricular function (15%)
      • Identified hypovolemia (13%)
      • Identified regional wall motion abnormalities (6%)
      • Identified aortic dissection (4%)
    • TEE was therapeutically influential in 67% of cases
      • Influenced changes to CPR (43%)
      • Directed cessation of resuscitation (30%)
      • Guided hemodynamic support (26%)
    • No major adverse effects from probe placement identified

Strengths & Limitations

  • Strengths
    • TEE exams were performed successfully by 14 different emergency physicians at 2 separate sites after only 4 hours of training, which demonstrated well the feasibility of TEE use in the ED on a more widespread basis.
    • Well-described outcomes
  • Limitations
    • Retrospective
    • Relatively small sample size
    • No comparison with TTE

Author's Conclusions

“ED- based TEE showed a high degree of feasibility (98% determinate rate) and clinical utility, with a diagnostic and therapeutic influence seen in the majority of cases. Focused TEE demonstrates the most promise in patients who are intubated and have either undifferentiated shock or cardiac arrest.”

Our Conclusions

This study demonstrates that performing TEE in the ED is both feasible and safe, and can be implemented with limited training of the physician staff. It also shows that TEE does have some clinical utility in the ED, specifically the detection of aortic dissection. However, the most common therapeutic effect noted in the study was the assessment of CPR quality, which can typically be assessed with less invasive means such as femoral pulse palpation and waveform capnography. The other common findings noted in the study (i.e. depressed ejection fraction, hypovolemia, guidance of hemodynamic support) can typically be assessed with more traditional and less invasive TTE. In order to truly evaluate the utility of TEE in the ED, a prospective study showing a comparison of TEE with TTE, and other less invasive diagnostic modalities, would need to be performed. That being said, having the ability to diagnose aortic dissection at the bedside and to guide resuscitation via direct cardiac visualization during ongoing CPR are important considerations. This is a promising pilot study that opens up the door for further research evaluating the utility of TEE in the ED, however at this point, it is not clear whether it will perform better than traditional TTE and other clinical adjuncts in both diagnostic and therapeutic abilities.

The Bottom Line

Performing TEE in the ED is both feasible and safe, and does provide useful clinical information. However more studies are required in order to assess the true clinical utility of this modality.

Authors

This post was written by Toby Matt, MS4 at UCSD. It was reviewed by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Arntfield R, e. (2017). Focused Transesophageal Echocardiography by Emergency Physicians is Feasible and Clinically Influential: Observational Results from a Novel Ultraso... - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 30 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26508495
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Case # 8: A Case of Comparision

A 40 year old male presents to the emergency department with pain to the entire right thumb and wrist for 1 day.  He notes that he suffered a small puncture wound to his right thumb 1 day ago while working on his car.  The patient has notable circumferential, non-erythematous swelling to his right thumb with tenderness along the flexor tendon. There is also fullness of the dorsum of his wrist. He is holding his fingers flexed and has pain radiating into the wrist with any movement of his fingers or wrist, especially with extension of his fingers.

Vitals: T 98.7 HR 90 BP 132/81  RR 13 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound is performed, what is the next best step in management?

Normal Left Thumb in Long Axis

Normal Left Thumb in Long Axis

Abnormal Right Thumb in Long Axis

Abnormal Right Thumb in Long Axis

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

Empirical antibiotic therapy and orthopedic surgery consultation for infectious flexor tenosynovitis (FTS).  The patient meets 4 out of 4 Kanavel's signs and has ultrasound evidence of FTS suggested by a thickened tendon with surrounding anechoic fluid.

Short Axis View of Right 1st Digit demonstrating hypoechoic fluid surrounding tendon.

Learning Points

    • FTS is often a clinical diagnosis and examination (Kanavel's signs) is thought to have high sensitivity (91.4-97.1%) but low specificity (51.3-69.2%) for infectious FTS [2]; however a negative exam does not rule it out completely.
      • Kanavel's signs include:
        • Finger held in slight flexion
        • Fusiform swelling
        • Tenderness along the flexor tendon sheath
        • Pain with passive extension of the digit
    • FTS is treated with empirical antibiotic  therapy as well as early surgical debridement and drainage. Delays in diagnosis can lead to local spread of infection, compartment syndrome and necrosis.
    • While there is not high quality evidence describing the use of emergency department point of care ultrasound (POCUS) to diagnose FTS, previous radiographic studies have found ultrasound to be more sensitive than clinical exam for detecting tenosynovitis [3].
    • Common ultrasound findings for FTS include:
      • Hypoechoic or anechoic edema or debris within the tendon sheath
      • +/- thickening of the tendon sheath
    • The ultrasound examination should be performed using a linear probe, examining the affected tendon (and normal tendon on other hand for comparison), in both the longitudinal and transverse plane.
      • Small rocking or fanning motions should be used to ensure perpendicular orientation of the probe to the tendon to avoid artifact secondary to anisotropy.
    • As in all uses of POCUS in the emergency department setting, findings should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical examination and history when evaluating for infectious FTS. We believe POCUS for infectious FTS can be used to increase diagnostic certainty and even expedite care and aggressive treatment however a normal exam should not be used to rule out this diagnosis.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Padrez, K., Bress, J., Johnson, B., & Nagdev, A. (2015). Bedside Ultrasound Identification of Infectious Flexor Tenosynovitis in the Emergency Department. Western Journal Of Emergency Medicine, 16(2), 260-262. doi:10.5811/westjem.2015.1.24474
    2. Kennedy CD, e. (2017). Differentiation Between Pyogenic Flexor Tenosynovitis and Other Finger Infections. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 21 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28720000
    3. Hmamouchi I, Bahiri R, Srifi N, et al. A comparison of ultrasound and clinical examination in the detection of flexor tenosynovitis in early arthritis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12(1):91.
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Variability in Interpretation of Cardiac Standstill Among Physician Sonographers

Background

The use of point-of-care echocardiography to inform termination or continuation of cardiopulmonary resuscitative efforts remains controversial [1,2]. Current understanding of its utility in prognostication is limited by varying definitions of cardiac activity. Definitions of cardiac standstill range from absence of “organized contractile activity (nonfibrillating) with a decrease in chamber size” to absence of “any visible movement of the myocardium, excluding movement of blood within the cardiac chambers or isolated valve movement” to absence of “any detected atrial, valvular, or ventricular motion within the heart” [3-5]. Without a consistent definition of cardiac standstill, it is difficult to interpret studies reporting conflicting resuscitation outcomes in cardiac arrest.

Variability in Interpretation of Cardiac Standstill Among Physician Sonographers

Clinical Question

What is the interrater reliability among providers in classification of cardiac standstill in point-of-care echocardiography?

Methods & Study Design

  • Design
    • Cross-sectional convenience sample survey
  • Population
    • Eligible: Residents, fellows, and faculty practicing in emergency medicine, critical care, or cardiology in attendance at one of six weekly emergency medicine (EM) conferences held at the following locations:
      • Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
      • Beth Israel Medical Center
      • St. Luke’s-Roosevelt Hospital
  • Exclusion criteria
    • Providers who had previously participated at a prior conference
  • Intervention
    • Participants were presented with the following clinical scenario: “55-year-old man in cardiac arrest who remains pulseless after 20 minutes of CPR”
    • Participants were shown 15 clips (6 seconds each, looped for 20 seconds total) presenting a variety of sonographic features
    • Asked to identify presence or absence of cardiac activity
    • Responses transmitted via remote polling devices
    • No definition of cardiac activity was provided
  • Outcomes
    • Primary: interrater reliability in interpreting cardiac standstill (Krippendorff’s alpha coefficient)
    • Secondary: subgroup analyses by specialty, training level, and self-described point of care (POC) ultrasound experience

Results

    • 127 participants (majority EM residents with basic ultrasound skills)
    • Overall moderate agreement with respect to identifying cardiac standstill (alpha 0.47)
    • Clips with stronger agreement:
      • No myocardial contraction
      • Myocardial contraction
      • Strong myocardial contraction
    • Clips with poorer agreement:
      • Valve flutter
      • Mechanical ventilation
      • Weak myocardial contraction
    • Moderate agreement across all training levels and self-reported ultrasonographic skill levels

Strengths & Limitations

  • Strengths
    • All participants saw the same clips
    • Response time limited (similar to clinical practice)
  • Limitations
    • Bias: recruitment from academic conferences
    • Majority with no or basic self-reported ultrasonographic skill level
    • Reported discussion among participants throughout survey

Author's Conclusions

“Our results support the possibility that previous studies have been subject to variability in the interpretation of cardiac standstill.”

Our Conclusions

We agree with the authors’ conclusions that there appears to be substantial variability in the interpretation of cardiac standstill. This study highlights a weakness in the current literature examining the utility of POC echocardiography used during resuscitation futility assessment. While this study does not provide data on clinical outcomes of standstill misclassification, it identifies a potential weakness in the available research. It is difficult to interpret studies reporting outcomes after standstill (such as meaningful survival) when the predictor is not consistently identified.

As a follow-up study, it would perhaps be interesting to see how the interrater reliability changes when participants are provided with a clear definition of cardiac standstill. Does the variability persist even with a uniform definition? If this improves interrater reliability it would provide additional support for the need for a consensus definition across future studies.

The Bottom Line

There is significant variability in classification of cardiac standstill among providers. A uniform definition of standstill may reduce this variability and aid in the interpretation of studies reporting conflicting outcomes after cardiac arrest.

Authors

This post was written by Carly Dougher, MS4 at UCSD. It was reviewed by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Blyth, L., Atkinson, P., Gadd, K. & Lang, E. Bedside Focused Echocardiography as Predictor of Survival in Cardiac Arrest Patients: A Systematic Review: Echocardiography in Cardiac Arrest. Acad. Emerg. Med. 19, 1119–1126 (2012).
    2. Cohn, B. Does the Absence of Cardiac Activity on Ultrasonography Predict Failed Resuscitation in Cardiac Arrest? Ann. Emerg. Med. 62, 180–181 (2013).
    3. Schuster, K. M. et al. Pulseless Electrical Activity, Focused Abdominal Sonography for Trauma, and Cardiac Contractile Activity as Predictors of Survival After Trauma: J. Trauma Inj. Infect. Crit. Care 67, 1154–1157 (2009).
    4. Gaspari, R. et al. Emergency department point-of-care ultrasound in out-of-hospital and in-ED cardiac arrest. Resuscitation 109, 33–39 (2016).
    5. Kim, H. B., Suh, J. Y., Choi, J. H. & Cho, Y. S. Can serial focussed echocardiographic evaluation in life support (FEEL) predict resuscitation outcome or termination of resuscitation (TOR)? A pilot study. Resuscitation 101, 21–26 (2016).
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Case # 7: A Case of Asymmetry

A 22 year old male presents to the emergency department with a sore throat for 1 week. The pain is predominately on the left side and is associated with difficulty opening his mouth and fever. He was placed on amoxicillin 3 days ago but notes that his symptoms have progressed. He appears uncomfortable.

Vitals: T 101.4 HR 105 BP 132/81  RR 14 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound is performed, what is the next best step in management?

PTA

Answer and Learning Point

Answer

Incision and drainage. The patient presents with lateralizing pharyngitis symptoms associated with fever and trismus concerning for peritonsillar abscess (PTA). The ultrasound clip demonstrates a well circumscribed, hypoechoic fluid collection abutting the left tonsil confirming this diagnosis (see color overlay below).

Previously, physicians relied solely on the physical exam findings of peritonsillar swelling and uvular deviation to make the diagnosis of PTA. However, this approach lacks accuracy, with studies showing a sensitivity and specificity of 75% and 50% respectively [1]. This uncertainty leads to increased CT utilization, repeat drainage attempts and ENT consultation. Intraoral ultrasound is a novel technique that can be used by emergency physicians (EP), both for diagnosis and drainage of PTA. A recent randomized control trial found the use of intraoral ultrasound (vs. traditional landmark technique) to be significantly more reliable for differentiating between PTA and peritonsillar cellulitis. Additionally, this study also demonstrated increased success in PTA drainage by EPs with the use of intraoral ultrasound guidance [2].

Data from Costantino et al

Learning Points

    • An endocavitary probe should be used when PTA is suspected to differentiated between PTA and peritonsillar cellulitis; and assist with drainage if necessary.
    • If an endocavitary probe is not available, or if the patient cannot open their mouth wide enough to pass the probe, an alternative approach, known as the telescopic submandibular approach can also be used and is explained here.
    • When using ultrasound, the distance from the oral mucosa to the center of the PTA should be measure. The plastic sheath of an 18-gauge needle (preferably a spinal needle to allow the barrel of the syringe to be outside of the patients mouth) should be cut to this length to prevent puncturing any deeper structures during drainage.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Scott PM, e. (2017). Diagnosis of peritonsillar infections: a prospective study of ultrasound, computerized tomography and clinical diagnosis. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10435129
    2. Costantino TG, e. (2017). Randomized trial comparing intraoral ultrasound to landmark-based needle aspiration in patients with suspected peritonsillar abscess. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22687177
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Right ventricular dilatation on bedside echocardiography performed by emergency physicians aids in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism

Background

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a disease entity with a high mortality rate, ranging from 2.5-33%. Frequently, its diagnosis is delayed or frankly missed and often it is only discovered during autopsy. Around 66% of deaths occur during the first hour of presentation and 75% of deaths during the initial hospitalization. The mechanism of morbidity/mortality for PE is thought to be secondary to right ventricle (RV) outflow obstruction, leading to circulatory collapse. Delays in diagnosis have been linked to issues with imaging (wait times, schedules), contrast in the setting of renal impairment, and poor IV access.

In the emergency department, it is not only critical to identify patients with PE, but also to identify those who are at risk for decompensation and poor outcomes. This can be accomplished by evaluating for signs of RV dysfunction which has been associated with RV failure, hemodynamic collapse, and death. Previous studies have shown that right ventricular dysfunction has been found in 27-40% of normotensive patients with PE. Well studied markers of RV dysfunction include elevated biomarkers [1], specific ECG findings (RBBB, tachycardia, S1Q3T3, anterior TWI, ST elevation aVR, atrial fibrillation) [2], and RV dysfunction on echocardiography [3]. While biomarkers and ECG are readily available to emergency providers (EP), these are less specific for the diagnosis of PE and bedside echocardiography may prove to be more useful for evaluation of PE and RV dysfunction.

Right Ventricular Dilatation on Bedside Echocardiography Performed by Emergency Physicians Aids in the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism

Clinical Question

Does evaluation for right ventricular dilation by emergency physicians using bedside echocardiography add diagnostic value in the evaluation for suspected pulmonary embolism? 

Methods & Study Design

  • Design
    • Prospective observational study
  • Population
    • Using a “convenience sample” population of patients who presented to the ED at Boston Medical Center from June 2009 – August 2011, with a moderate to high suspicion (pretest probability) of having a PE.  Wells score ≥2, those receiving PE imaging (CT, angio, V/Q scan), or those who came in with diagnosis of PE.
  • Exclusion criteria 
    • Non-english speakers
    • Prisoners
  • Intervention
    • Transthoracic echocardiography (blinded of confirmatory results) was performed by 4 ED docs, 1 with advanced training in cardiac sonography.  The other 3 had standard 1-month residency rotation in ultrasound and a minimum of 25 cardiac ultrasounds; plus, 10 hours hands-on and 10 hours image review with principal investigator.
    • Data collection
      • 3 views recorded: parasternal short & long axis, and apical 4-chamber, with primary measurement being qualitative assessment of RV size vs. LV size. Normal ratio (0.6:1)
        • Dilation defined as >1:1 RV:LV ratio
        • RV length and diameter or qualitative distension of RV apex adjacent to LV apex also assessed
      • They also recorded: RV function (nl vs. hypokinetic), paradoxical septal motion, and presence of McConnell’s sign.
      • All image reads were reviewed by the PI.
      • ED RAs then used chart review to compare findings to confirmatory imaging
        • PE was categorized as proximal vs distal
        • Disposition of patient was also documented 
  • Outcomes
    • Diagnostic characteristics
      • Sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, positive and negative likelihood ratios
    • Presence of advanced signs of RV dysfunction
      • Right ventricular hypokinesis [qualitatively assessed as normal or hypokinetic], paradoxical septal motion, and McConnell’s sign

Results

    • Final analysis
      • 146 patients included in study
      • 126 with moderate pretest probability
      • 20 with high pretest probability
      • 126 with normal RV:LV ratio, 17 with increased RV:LV ratio
      • 30 had PE, of these 15 also had increased RV:LV ratio
    • Presence of RV dilation test characteristics
      • Sensitivity 50% (95% CI 32% to 68%)
      • Specificity 98% (95% CI 95% to 100%), a positive predictive value of 88%
      • Positive Predictive Value 88%  negative predictive value of 88%
      • Negative Predictive Value 88% (95% CI 83% to 94%).
      • Positive Likelihood Ratio 29 (95% CI 6.1% to 64%)
      • Negative Likelihood Ratio 0.51 (95% CI 0.4% to 0.7%)
      • Good observer agreement 96%, independent 100%

Strengths & Limitations

  • Strengths
    • Good concordance of sens/spec with prior study observations, although higher sensitivity
    • Good intra-observer agreement/reliability
  • Limitations
    • Single location, young population (less chronic diseases leading to RV changes)
    • Operator skill may not generalize to other physicians, other EDs.  PI was very experienced sonographer.
    • Convenience sample leading to possible selection bias.
    • Secondary outcomes under-powered.

Author's Conclusions

The authors conclude that right ventricular dilatation on bedside echocardiography may help emergency physicians rule in pulmonary embolism more rapidly by raising a provider’s index of suspicion before definitive testing. They also note that this evidence supports the concept that patients with a moderate to high pretest probability for pulmonary embolism and a bedside echocardiography result showing right ventricular dilatation should be considered for anticoagulation before definitive testing.

Lastly, they also comment on severity of PE, noting that patients with signs of advanced right ventricular dysfunction on bedside echocardiography (right ventricular dilatation with right ventricular hypokinesis, McConnell’ s sign, or paradoxical septal motion), tends to occur in patients with a larger clot burden who are more likely to be admitted to an ICU setting or have in hospital mortality (though this study was not powered appropriately for this analysis).

Our Conclusions

 We agree with the author's conclusions of this study that EP performed bedside echocardiography is a useful adjunct in the evaluation of suspected PE, both in identification of PE as well as risk stratification. We know that delays in diagnosis/treatment can lead to worse outcomes, however with the ability of EPs to perform bedside echocardiography and identify right ventricular dilation, this may reduce the time to both of these endpoints. It also seems reasonable that in patients who are moderate to high risk for PE, whom have evidence of right ventricular dilation on bedside echocardiography,  be empirically treated with anticoagulation prior to definitive imaging, with the caveat that they have no high bleed risk.

The Bottom Line

Emergency physician performed bedside echocardiography can be used reliably to increase provider's index of suspicion for PE in patients demonstrating RV dilation; however, given its poor sensitivity, it should not be used as a screening tool for PE.

Authors

This post was written by Hector Guerrero, MS4 at UCSD. It was reviewed by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Weekes AJ, e. (2017). Diagnostic Accuracy of Right Ventricular Dysfunction Markers in Normotensive Emergency Department Patients With Acute Pulmonary Embolism. - PubMed - NCBI. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 25 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26973178
    2. Shopp, J., Stewart, L., Emmett, T., & Kline, J. (2015). Findings From 12-lead Electrocardiography That Predict Circulatory Shock From Pulmonary Embolism: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Academic Emergency Medicine, 22(10), 1127-1137. doi:10.1111/acem.12769
    3. Dudzinski DM, e. (2017). Assessment of Right Ventricular Strain by Computed Tomography Versus Echocardiography in Acute Pulmonary Embolism. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 25 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27664798
    4. Dresden S, e. (2017). Right ventricular dilatation on bedside echocardiography performed by emergency physicians aids in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 25 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24075286
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Case # 6: Not Your Average Syncope

A 25 year old female presents to the emergency department with acute abdominal pain and a syncopal episode. She notes a positive home urine pregnancy test 1 week ago. She appears mildly uncomfortable with a tender abdomen. A bedside ultrasound is performed, a clip is shown below. What are the findings of the ultrasound clip and what is your diagnosis?

Vitals: T 98.7 HR 120 BP 95/72  RR 20 O2 98% on RA

Image courtesy of Elizabeth Owen, MD

Image courtesy of Elizabeth Owen, MD

Answer and Learning Point

Answer

The ultrasound clip demonstrates a large amount of free fluid between the spleen and the diaphragm. There is also a sliver of echogenic material above the capsule of the spleen suggestive of clotted blood. Morison’s pouch (not shown) was also noted to be significantly positive for free fluid. Given the patient’s unstable vitals and the clinical history, this was concerning for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy. OB was consulted immediately and the patient was taken to the OR. The diagnosis of ruptured ectopic pregnancy was confirmed during laparotomy. The patient did well.

While the FAST exam has traditionally been used in trauma, there has been increasing use to diagnose intra-abdominal bleeding as a source of hypotension in medical patients. Specifically with regards to ectopic pregnancy, data has suggested that positive free fluid in Morison’s pouch is highly predictive of operative intervention with a positive likelihood ratio of 112 (Sens 50%, Spec 99.5) [1]. A retrospective study in 2001, looking at emergency medicine physician performed ultrasound, demonstrated that identifying patients with a suspected ectopic pregnancy and free fluid in Morison’s pouch decreased the time to diagnosis and treatment [2].

Learning Points

    • All women of childbearing age presenting with abdominal pain and syncope should be presumed to have a ruptured ectopic pregnancy until proven otherwise
    • Transabdominal ultrasound to evaluate for free fluid should be utilized by the emergency physician in cases of suspected ruptured ectopic pregnancy to assist with risk stratification and rapid diagnosis
    • As in trauma patients, evaluation for free fluid should be performed with the patient supine (or preferably Trendelenburg position as this increases the sensitivity of identifying free fluid in Morison’s pouch [3])
    • A curvilinear (preferred) or phased-array probe should be used to evaluate the abdomen for free fluid and it is critical to completely visualize the most inferior portion of Morison's Pouch, including the caudal tip of the liver & inferior renal pole, as this is where free fluid will collect first
    • A positive pregnancy test and positive free fluid in Morison’s pouch is essentially diagnostic of a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (though ruptured splenic artery aneurysm should also remain on your differential)

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Moore C, Todd WM, O’Brien E. Free Fluid in Morison’s Pouch on Bedside Ultrasound Predicts Need for Operative Intervention in Suspected Ectopic Pregnancy. Acad Emerg Med. 2007; 14(8):755-8.
    2. Rodgerson JD, Heegaard WG, Plummer D, Hicks J, Clinton J, Sterner S. Emergency department right upper quadrant ultrasound is associated with a reduced time to diagnosis and treatment of ruptured ectopic pregnancies. Acad Emerg Med. 2001; 8:331–6.
    3. Abrams BJ, Sukumvanich P, Seibel R, Moscati R, Jehle D. Ultrasound for the detection of intraperitoneal fluid: the role of Trendelenburg positioning. Am J Emerg Med. 1999;17:(2)117-20.
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Ultrasound use during cardiopulmonary resuscitation is associated with delays in chest compressions

Background

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has quickly become a core adjunct used in the emergency department (ED) during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Specifically, it is now frequently used to evaluate for reversible causes of cardiac arrest (i.e. cardiac tamponade, pulmonary embolism), guide resuscitation, and prognosticate on patient outcomes based on presenting cardiac activity [1]. However at this time, the benefits of the use of POCUS during CPR are not yet clear in terms of patient centered outcomes. What is known to have an effect on patient outcomes is providing high quality CPR, with minimal interruptions, and early defibrillation [2]. POCUS during CPR is often performed during pulse checks and it can take ample time to obtain sufficient views for proper interpretation. One concern is that this can result in unnecessary delays in resuming chest compressions during CPR, leading to harmful effects on patient outcomes.

Ultrasound use during cardiopulmonary resuscitation is associated with delays in chest compressions

 

Clinical Question

Does use of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) in cardiopulmonary resuscitation lengthen the duration of pulse checks beyond the guideline recommendation of 10 seconds?

Methods & Study Design

  • Design
    • Prospective cohort study
  • Population
    • This was a single center study performed at an adult, urban, tertiary care, academic medical center
    • All patients, 18 years of age or older, who presented to the emergency department (ED) in cardiac arrest or in whom cardiac arrest occurred while in the ED were eligible for enrollment
  • Exclusion criteria 
    • No documentation of a pulse check
    • Not placed in one of three designated resuscitation rooms with continuous video monitoring capability
    • Video monitoring obtained was not available or image quality was too poor for extraction of data
  • Intervention
    • All cardiac arrest resuscitations were recorded by video camera
      • Researchers recorded the duration of pulse checks (in milliseconds) and whether POCUS was used
  • Outcomes
    • Duration of pulse checks with the use of POCUS

Results

    • 23 patients enrolled
    • 123 individual rhythm checks
    • The use of POCUS significantly increased the pulse-check duration by 8.4 seconds (95% CI, 6.7-10.0 [p<0.0001])
    • Age and BMI did not affect the duration of pulse checks or CPR interruptions
    • No findings on any of the POCUS images prompted a procedure
    • Survival to ED discharge/hospital admission: 35% (8/23)
    • Survival to hospital discharge: 4% (1/23)
    • Survival at 30 days: 4% (1/23)

Strengths & Limitations

  • Strengths
    • Data collected directly from video which removes any bias on recall of events that occurred during cardiopulmonary resuscitation
  • Limitations
    • Small number of patients included in the study
    • Single center study reduces its external validity
    • No information of level of training of US operators
    • No commentary on the impact of POCUS on mortality or neurologic outcomes

Author's Conclusions

"The use of POCUS during cardiac arrest resuscitation was associated with an increase in the duration of pulse checks by 8.4 seconds, causing interruptions in high-quality chest compressions nearly double the 10-second duration recommended by current international cardiopulmonary resuscitation guidelines. It is critical for acute care providers to pay close attention to the duration of CPR interruptions when using POCUS during cardiac arrest resuscitation."

Our Conclusions

With the introduction of novel indications for POCUS, we need to be aware of both the benefits and harms. This is an important study that identifies a potential harm of POCUS during CPR. There is no doubt from this data that POCUS did result in prolonged pulse checks above the guideline recommended 10 seconds. While this study does not directly tell us that POCUS increases mortality in cardiac arrest (as it is much too small), there is clear evidence that increased interruptions in chest compressions during CPR leads to worse outcomes.

The utility of this study is that it identifies a problem with POCUS in which there are clear solutions. With this new evidence, we must take a thoughtful approach to use of POCUS during CPR. Some proposed solutions to address this problem include:

    • Identifying personnel during CPR who can verbalize the time spent during pulse check to make providers acutely aware of when CPR should be resumed ("10, 9, 8, 7...")
    • Recording a POCUS clip for 5 seconds, then reviewing the stored images while CPR is resumed
    • Having a care provider ready to perform POCUS exam with probe on chest just before chest compressions are withheld
    • Use of transesophageal (TEE) POCUS which allows for image acquisition during ongoing CPR

The findings of this paper are definitely not the end of POCUS in CPR, as I find that there are numerous reasons that it is useful (i.e. monitoring of proper chest compression location, identification of reversible etiology of cardiac arrest, prognostication, closure for health care providers during end of resuscitations...), however I would like to see larger studies on this topic as well as quality improvement and awareness of this potential harm of prolonged pulse checks secondary to POCUS utilization.

The Bottom Line

The use of POCUS during CPR may increase the duration of pulse checks beyond the recommended 10 seconds. Care providers should be aware of this potential harm and measures should be taken to prevent unnecessary delays in chest compressions.

Authors

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Gaspari R, e. (2017). Emergency department point-of-care ultrasound in out-of-hospital and in-ED cardiac arrest. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 8 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27693280

    2. Link MS et al. Part 7: Adult Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015 Nov 3;132(18 Suppl 2):S444-64.

    3. Huis In 't Veld MA, e. (2017). Ultrasound use during cardiopulmonary resuscitation is associated with delays in chest compressions. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 8 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28754527
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Case # 5: It’s Not Always Blood

A middle aged male s/p TURBT (transurethral resection of bladder tumor) 1 day ago presented with lower abdominal pain and no urine output from his foley catheter. A bladder scan was performed which was ~ 50 cc. What's the dx?

Vitals: T 98.7 HR 110 BP 117/70  RR 18 O2 98% on RA

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Answer and Learning Point

Answer

The image above is of Morrison's pouch, demonstrating significant free fluid within the peritoneal cavity. Given the recent TURBT and lack of urinary output from the patient's foley catheter, this suggests that the fluid identified is consistent with urine secondary to intraperitoneal bladder perforation. This was later confirmed by CT cystogram and shortly after the patient was taken to the operating room for definitive repair.

Learning Points

    • Bladder perforation from TURBT is relatively rare with an incidence of clinically significant perforations of 1.3%. Furthermore, intraperitoneal bladder perforation only accounts for ~17% of these, making it quite uncommon [1]. A small number of intraperitoneal bladder perforations are also associated with small bowel or colon injury [2].
    • While around 30% of bladder ruptures from TURBT are detected intraoperatively, the remainder present postoperatively (mean time to diagnosis of 6 days) with lower abdominal pain and/or decreased urine output [2].
    • CT cystogram is the gold standard for diagnosis of bladder perforation and can provide information on location of the perforation as well as whether it is intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal [3].
    • As demonstrated in the case above, ultrasound can be used as an imaging adjunct at the bedside to rapidly detect intraperitoneal fluid to expedite consultation with urologic services and definitive CT imaging.
    • The treatment of extraperitoneal perforation of the bladder is usually conservative via prolonged foley catheter drainage. For intraperitoneal lesions, open-surgical exploration and repair is recommended [1-2].
    • Emergency department management of these patients should consist of rapid diagnosis, broad spectrum antibiotic therapy, fluid resuscitation as needed, and urgent urological consultation.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Rausch S, e. (2017). [Transurethral resection of bladder tumors: management of complications]. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=24806801
    2. Golan S, e. (2017). Transurethral resection of bladder tumour complicated by perforation requiring open surgical repair - clinical characteristics and oncological outc... - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 September 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20860654
    3. COMPLICATIONS OF TRANSURETHRAL RESECTION OF BLADDER TUMORS. Eric A. Singer MD, MA and Ganesh S. Palapattu MD. Complications of Urologic Surgery: Prevention and Management, Chapter 25, 295-302
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Feasibility and accuracy of bedside transthoracic echocardiography in diagnosis of acute proximal aortic dissection

Background

Acute aortic dissection is a life threatening condition that requires prompt diagnosis and definitive management; dissection involving the ascending aorta is undoubtably an indication for emergent surgical intervention. Previous data suggests that the mortality of type A dissection increases by 1-2% for every hour that passes which further highlights the importance of rapid diagnosis [1-2]. Currently, CT is considered the gold standard that enables the visualization of the entire aorta and can distinguish among the different types of acute aortic syndromes; however this is not always available, requires transferring patients to the CT scanner, and can ultimately generate a significant delay in treatment. Ultrasound is an easily available alternative imaging adjunct that may prove useful in rapid diagnosis of acute aortic dissection, specifically, type A dissection that require emergency surgical intervention.

Feasibility and Accuracy of Bedside Transthoracic Echocardiography in Diagnosis of Acute Proximal Aortic Dissection

 

Clinical Question

What is the accuracy of transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) in the diagnosis of acute type A aortic dissection in comparison to CT (with reference to the intra-operative diagnosis)?

Methods & Study Design

  • Design
    • Retrospective chart review
  • Population
    • This was a single center study involving patients  transferred due to suspected acute type A aortic dissection
    • Cardiac surgery for type A dissection was conducted in 172/178 patients (1 patient refused the operation and died, 5 patients underwent cardiac arrest and died prior to transfer to the operating room)
      • Because intra-operative findings were considered the gold standard reference for the presence of aortic dissection, the 6 patients who died without cardiac surgery were excluded from the final analysis
    • Inclusion criteria:
      • Referral for an urgent surgery due to proximal aortic dissection (Stanford classification Type A)
      • Available results of both CT and bedside TTE
    • Excluded
      • Patients who died prior to cardiac surgery
      • 1 patient who refused surgery
      • Patients who underwent surgical repair of acute type A aortic dissection based on TTE without confirmatory CT
  • Intervention
    • TTE was performed in the emergency department by an “experienced echocardiographer" to evaluate for: maximum ascending aorta diameter, presence of a dissection flap in the ascending aorta, left ventricular ejection fraction, pericardial effusion (and cardiac tamponade), aortic valve morphology and severity of aortic regurgitation
      • Echocardiographic findings were compared to CT findings and intra-operative findings were used as a gold standard
  • Outcomes
    • Identification of type A aortic dissection by TTE
    • Correlation of TTE measurements of maximum ascending aortic diameter with CT and intra-operative findings

Results

    • Statistical analysis with chi square test did not show any statistically significant differences between CT and TTE in the detection of proximal aortic dissection.
    • Additionally, echo revealed concomitant abnormalities (i.e. bicuspid aortic valve, AV calcifications, moderate/severe aortic incompetence, cardiac tamponade), which were all confirmed intra-operatively and influenced the treatment strategy (graft vs. valve-sparing surgery).
    • In patients with any aortic valve abnormalities (bicuspid aortic valve, AV calcifications, significant aortic regurgitation) procedure of choice was replacement by a composite graft (77.59% vs. 49.12%), whereas patients with normal aortic valves were significantly more likely to have the valve sparing surgery (50.88% vs. 22.41%)
    • There was a strong positive correlation between maximum diameter of the ascending aorta measured by TTE and CT (correlation coefficient 0.869)

Strengths & Limitations

  • Strengths
    • This was a feasibility study, and they used a population with known acute type A aortic dissection to determine if TTE could be used to provide both a rapid and reliable diagnosis in proximal aortic dissection
    • Gold standard was intra-operative findings
  • Limitations
    • Retrospective analysis, meaning that the diagnosis of aortic dissection has either already been made or was strongly suspected prior to initiating scanning; some may argue this may falsely increase the noted sensitivity/specificity of TTE
    • All patients who underwent cardiac surgery for acute proximal dissection based on TTE without CT verification (~30% patients at their institution) were excluded from the analysis
    • The TTE was performed by personnel trained in advanced echocardiography which may lower the sensitivity/specificity of these findings in the hands of less experienced operators

Author's Conclusions

"Our data confirm that TTE is a reliable method for diagnosis of proximal aortic dissection. TTE provides a reliable value of maximum diameter of the ascending aorta in comparison to both CT and direct intra-operative measurement. Moreover, TTE gives the additional information that influences the operative technique of choice and identifies the high-risk patients (cardiac tamponade, severe aortic dilatation, severe aortic regurgitation). Our retrospective analysis confirms the pivotal role of TTE in the evaluation of the patients with suspected proximal aortic dissection in emergency room setting."

Our Conclusions

Our conclusions are very similar to author findings on this paper. From the emergency department standpoint, we need the ability to distinguish sick patients from not sick patients and TTE in suspected acute aortic dissection does just that. Looking at this data, TTE measurements of maximum ascending aorta diameter correlate very well with intra-operative measurements. Furthermore, TTE is very accurate at identifying complications of type A aortic dissection such as decompensated heart failure (due to acute aortic regurgitation) and cardiac tamponade, both of which will alter surgical management.

What this means is that if you suspect aortic dissection, a bedside echo should be performed immediately looking for ascending aorta enlargement, dissection flap, and/or complications of dissection. If found, cardiac surgery can confidently be consulted and the patient can either be pushed to the operating room if unstable or pushed directly to the CT scanner by the emergency medicine provider. What this does not mean is that your work up stops here if no findings of dissection are found. If you are truly concerned about aortic dissection then the next step is to proceed with CT for definitive rule out. For more information on evaluation of acute aortic dissection, please read our recent case here.

The Bottom Line

The use of TTE in suspected proximal aortic dissection facilitates a rapid and reliable diagnosis, and shortens the delay to definitive treatment in a subset of high-risk patients.

Authors

This post was written by Ryan Shine, MS-4 at UCSD. It was edited by Michael Macias, MD.

References

    1. HIRST AE Jr, e. (2017). Dissecting aneurysm of the aorta: a review of 505 cases. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 26 August 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13577293

    2. Hagan PG, e. (2017). The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection (IRAD): new insights into an old disease. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 26 August 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10685714

    3. Sobczyk, D., & Nycz, K. (2015). Feasibility and accuracy of bedside transthoracic echocardiography in diagnosis of acute proximal aortic dissection. Cardiovascular Ultrasound, 13(1). doi:10.1186/s12947-015-0008-5
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Case # 4: To Bolus or Not to Bolus?

 

 

A 67 year old male with a PMHx of DM presents with a chief complaint of cough and generalized weakness.

Vitals: T 102.4 HR 127 BP 77/58  RR 24 O2 88% on RA

You place the patient on O2 via nasal cannula and activate the sepsis protocol. He is empirically treated with broad spectrum antibiotics and IVFs are started. The chest x-ray shows multifocal pneumonia and you call hospital medicine to admit the patient.  “What’s the blood pressure now,” the hospitalist asks. You glance at the monitor and murmur back, “92/63, but he looks pretty good.” The hospitalist asks you to insert a central line, start vasopressors, and contact the ICU. Instead, you wheel the ultrasound machine into his room, and ultrasound his IVC. Does this patient require a central line and vasopressors?

Long Axis View of IVC

Long Axis View of IVC

M-mode: IVC collapse with respiratory variation

M-mode: IVC collapse with respiratory variation

Answer and Learning Point

Answer

No, the patient’s IVC is small and collapsing almost 75% with normal respiratory variation. This predicts a fluid-responsive state. The patient was given another liter of lactated ringers, his blood pressure improved to 108/69, and his lactate cleared. You start maintenance IV fluids, call the hospitalist back, and the patient is admitted upstairs and does well.

Learning Points

    • Fluid responsiveness is a controversial topic that continues to plague emergency medicine physicians and intensivists alike
    • In patients whom a fluid bolus is being considered, ultrasound can be a useful tool to assess for cardiac function, lung fluid status (interstitial edema) and whether a patient will improve their cardiac output in response to this fluid challenge
    • A recent study showed that the cIVC (inferior vena cava collapsibility) can be used as a predictor of who will be a fluid responder [1]
      • cIVC = (IVC expiratory diameter - IVC inspiratory diameter)/IVC expiratory diameter
      • Patients with a cIVC > 25% are likely to be fluid responders (LR + 4.56)
      • Patients with a cIVC < 25% are unlikely to be fluid responders (LR - 0.16)
    • The IVC should be examined in the subxiphoid region with the probe in a sagittal plane, and can be found by first identifying the right atrium and following this caudally
      • A back-up approach involves using the liver as an acoustic window , placing the probe in the mid axillary line in a coronal plane,  and fanning anteriorly and posteriorly until the IVC is visualized
      • The IVC should be measured 3 cm caudal to the junction of the right atrium and IVC [2]
    • M-mode can be used to evaluate the cIVC and has the advantage of measuring the exact same spot along the IVC over an extended period of time
    • As with all adjuncts to clinical decision making, fluid responsiveness should not be determined solely on a single ultrasound measurement such as cIVC but should be taken into context with the rest of the clinical picture

Author

This post was written by Amir Aminlari, MD, Ultrasound Fellowship Director at UCSD.

References

Corl KA, e. (2017). Inferior vena cava collapsibility detects fluid responsiveness among spontaneously breathing critically-ill patients. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 19 August 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28525778

Nagdev AD, e. (2017). Emergency department bedside ultrasonographic measurement of the caval index for noninvasive determination of low central venous pressure. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 19 August 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19556029

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