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Case # 16: The Smoking Gun

A 32 year-old woman with history of pleurisy and systemic lupus erythematosus presented to the emergency department with three weeks of shortness of breath and pleuritic chest pain, acutely worse one day prior to arrival.

She flew into San Diego three days prior to her hospital presentation. She became dyspneic when walking from her hotel bed to the bathroom. On review of systems, she did endorse 3 weeks of right lower leg cramping. She denied fever/chills, cough, back pain, or history of blood clots. She was tachypneic and speaking in short phrases upon arrival.

Vitals: T: 98.3, HR: 130, BP: 142/88, RR: 24, SpO2 97% on RA

A bedside ultrasound ECHO and lower extremity scan was preformed.  What do you see?

 

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RV strain gif
dvt gif 2

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

These ultrasound images show an apical 4 chamber and parasternal short view of the heart, as well as a right lower extremity DVT. The apical 4 chamber demonstrates right ventricular dilation with bowing of the septum into the left ventricle. The parasternal short illustrates “D sign” with right ventricular dilation and bowing/flattening of the interventricular septum leading to decreased left ventricular systolic function. Both views indicate right heart strain in the setting of likely pulmonary embolism. The right lower extremity showed a noncompressible right femoral vein, indicating DVT.

TPA was prepared and ready to give incase patient had worsening hemodynamic instability. She was fortuantley able to tolerate further imaging without HD compromise; CT angio confirmed the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism in bilateral main pulmonary arteries extending into all 5 lobes. Half dose TPA was administered and the patient was admitted to the ICU.

Learning Points

    • Identification of right ventricular dilatation on point-of-care echocardiography for the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism has a sensitivity of 50%, but a specificity of 98%1
    • Patients who present normotensive but have signs of cardiac dysfunction secondary to a PE are classified as submassive, and thrombolytic therapy should be considered2
    • When combining echocardiogram with lower extremity ultrasound, the sensitivity and specificity of cardiac US are 91% and 87%, respectively. Venous US shows a lower sensitivity 56%, but higher specificity 95% than cardiac. When cardiac and venous US are both positive the specificity increases to 100%, whereas when at least one was positive the sensitivity increased to 95.3
    • There is a broad differential of patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and shortness of breath. Point-of-care transthoracic cardiac ultrasound in the ED is an effective tool to promptly diagnose acute pulmonary embolism with right heart strain, and rapidly guide management.4,5 This patient with a history of lupus and pericarditis could have presented with cardiac tamponade, and ultrasound did show a small circumferential pericardial effusion, but did not show a collapsing right ventricle that would be expected in tamponade (instead, a dilated RV is seen).6
 

Author

Nicolas Kahl, MD. Emergency Medicine Resident. UCSD Department of Emergency Medicine.

Jessica Oswald, MD. Clinical Faculty, UCSD Department of Emergency Medicine. 

Sukhdeep Singh, MD. Clinical Faculty, UCSD Department of Emergency Medicine. Director of POCUS, El Centro Regional Medical Center.

References

  1. Dresden S, et al. Right Ventricular dilatation on bedside echocardiography performed by emergency physicians aids in diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Ann Emerg Med; 2014 Jan; 63(1):16-24
  2. Malik Sonika et al. Advanced Management Options for Massive and Submassive Pulmonary Embolism. USC US Cardiology Review. 2016 Feb. 
  3. Nazerian P, et al.Diagnostic accuracy of focused cardiac and venous ultrasound examinations in patients with shock and suspected pulmonary embolism.Intern Emerg Med. 2018 Jun;13(4):567-574
  4. Fields JM, et al. Transthoracic Echocardiography for Diagnosing Pulmonary Embolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2017
  5. Kahl N, et al. Point-of-care Ultrasound Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism with Thrombus in Transit.Clin Pract Cases Emerg Med. 2019 Feb; 3(1): 11–12.
  6. Singh, S., et al., Usefulness of right ventricular diastolic collapse in diagnosing cardiac tamponade and comparison to pulsus paradoxus.Am J Cardiol, 1986. 57(8): p. 652-6.
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Case # 15: When Lines Go Wild

A 35 year old woman with sickle cell disease presented to the emergency department with localized swelling and pain near her port site. The pain started two days prior to arrival, when she was at an infusion center and her port was found to be inaccessible by the staff. She stated that the staff were unable to draw back any blood. She denied shortness of breath, chest pain, fever, or any other skin changes aside from the swelling.

Vitals: T: 97.8, HR: 64, BP: 144/80, RR: 16, Sat: 96% on RA

A bedside ultrasound ECHO was preformed to evaluate the distal tip of the port.  What do you see?

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

These ultrasound images show an apical 4 view of the heart. There is a hyperechoic mass in the right atrium that does not shadow, suggestive of a line thrombosis. A CT angio confirmed the diagnosis, showing a large clot adhered to the distal tip of the catheter.

Learning Points

    • Catheter-related complications are common and are the cause of significant morbidity and mortality for patients that have chronic indwelling lines. Symptomatic rates are reported to be 5% with asymptomatic rates increasing to nearly 20%(1).
    • Typical imaging beings with an upper extremity ultrasound. However, challenges arise as compression is unattainable when dealing with subclavian vessels(2). CT can improve the sensitivity and specificity(3).
    • In our case, a DVT ultrasound would not have been adequate, as the port is inserted over the subclavian vessel. However, a clot located in the heart can be easily detected on a cardiac echo. A CT angio was used to confirm there was a clot adhered to the line, but no pulmonary embolism.
    • Ultrasound can be used to evaluate for RV strain and at times may note RA thrombosis (such as in this case), clots in transit, and can be helpful in evaluating lines that extend into the right atrium/right ventricle.  

Ultrasound findings of clots on the cardiac echo:

Non-adhered clots will typically be floating/tumbling with cardiac motion. Since they are non-calcified, shadowing does not typically occur.

Right Atrial Thrombus
Dr. Scheels. The POCUS Atlas. http://www.thepocusatlas.com/

This can be difficulty to distingue from other masses, such as an atrial myxoma. However the correct clinical context is able to help.

Atrial Myxoma
Dr. Russell. The POCUS Atlas. http://www.thepocusatlas.com/

Using echo to check line placement/wire tips is not uncommon. Obtaining an apical 4 view as done in this case, one can evaluate the right atrium and right ventricle.


Dr. Ftacnikova et al. 3D ECHO 360. http://3decho360.com/cc19/

Author

Sukhdeep Singh, MD. Clinical Faculty, UCSD Department of Emergency Medicine. Director of POCUS, El Centro Regional Medical Center

References

  1. Verso M, Agnelli GJ. Venous thromboembolism associated with long-term use of central venous catheters in cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 3665–3675.
  2. Sartori M, Migliaccio L, Favaretto E, et al. Whole-Arm Ultrasound to Rule Out Suspected Upper-Extremity Deep Venous Thrombosis in Outpatients. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(7):1226–1227. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.1683
  3. Gita Yashwantrao Karande, Sandeep S. Hedgire, Yadiel Sanchez, Vinit Baliyan, Vishala Mishra, Suvranu Ganguli, Anand M. Prabhakar
    Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2016 Dec; 6(6): 493–507. doi: 10.21037/cdt.2016.12.06
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Case # 14: Whirlpool swirling, twisting and turning

A 13-year-old male presents to the emergency department with right testicular pain for one-hour duration. The pain began while having a bowel movement. He had no nausea or vomiting. His exam is notable for a high riding right testicle and tenderness to palpation over the right testicle.

Vitals: T: 97.8, HR: 106, BP: 135/79, RR: 16, Sat: 96% on RA

A bedside ultrasound of the testicles is performed. What do you see?

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

These ultrasound images demonstrates limited flow into the right testicle suggestive of testicular torsion. Manual detorsion was performed at the bedside using the “open-the-book” maneuver with subsequent ultrasound demonstrating return of flow to the right testicle. Urology was consulted, and the patient was scheduled for an outpatient orchiopexy.

Learning Points

The acute scrotum is a presentation that requires timely evaluation and management by the emergency physician. Of all causes of acute scrotum, testicular torsion is the diagnosis that requires the most emergent action because of the limited time window of testicular salvageability.1 Unfortunately, in many clinical settings including urgent cares, clinics, and rural community emergency rooms, it can be challenging to confirm our clinical suspicion in a timely fashion because of the difficulty in obtaining an official scrotal ultrasound. For this reason, POCUS is an important tool for emergency physicians in the diagnosis of patients with acute scrotum.

Ultrasound findings of testicular torsion:

Loss or reduction of color Doppler flow/Spectral Doppler tracings to affected testicle (Must compare to other testicle)

Affected testicle becomes more heterogeneous than other testicle

Adhikari, S. R. (2008). Small parts - Testicular ultrasound. Retrieved from https://www.acep.org/sonoguide/smparts_testicular.html

Thickened, hypoechoic mediastinum5 

Prando D. Torsion of the spermatic cord: the main gray-scale and doppler sonographic signs. Abdom Imaging. 2009 Sep-Oct;34(5):648-61. doi: 10.1007/s00261-008-9449-8. Review. PubMed PMID: 18709404. 

Whirlpool sign6

Author

Marissa Wolfe, MS4; Amir Aminlari, MD, Emergency Ultrasound Fellowship Director at UCSD

References

  1. Mellick LB, Sinex JE, Gibson RW, Mears K. A Systematic Review of Testicle Survival Time After a Torsion Event. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2017 Sep 25. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000001287. [Epub ahead of print] PubMed PMID: 28953100.
  2. Sharp VJ, Kieran K, Arlen AM. Testicular torsion: diagnosis, evaluation, and management. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Dec 15;88(12):835-40. Review. PubMed PMID: 24364548.
  3. Wang S, Scoutt L. Testicular torsion and manual detorsion. Ultrasound Q. 2013 Sep;29(3):261-2. doi: 10.1097/RUQ.0b013e3182a2d129. PubMed PMID: 23945494.
  4. Adhikari, S. R. (2008). Small parts - Testicular ultrasound. Retrieved from https://www.acep.org/sonoguide/smparts_testicular.html
  5. Prando D. Torsion of the spermatic cord: the main gray-scale and doppler sonographic signs. Abdom Imaging. 2009 Sep-Oct;34(5):648-61. doi: 10.1007/s00261-008-9449-8. Review. PubMed PMID: 18709404.
  6. Kalfa N, Veyrac C, Lopez M, Lopez C, Maurel A, Kaselas C, Sibai S, Arena F, Vaos G, Bréaud J, Merrot T, Kalfa D, Khochman I, Mironescu A, Minaev S, Avérous M, Galifer RB. Multicenter assessment of ultrasound of the spermatic cord in children with acute scrotum. J Urol. 2007 Jan;177(1):297-301; discussion 301. PubMed PMID: 17162068.
  7. Vijayaraghavan SB. Sonographic differential diagnosis of acute scrotum: real-time whirlpool sign, a key sign of torsion. J Ultrasound Med. 2006 May;25(5):563-74. PubMed PMID: 16632779.
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Case # 13: What Lies Beneath

A 30 year old male presents to the emergency department after blunt trauma to the face from an altercation. He notes he was punched several times in the face but did not pass out. His exam is notable for significant right periorbital ecchymosis and edema with inability to open his eye. You are unable to perform a direct eye exam given the significant periorbital swelling.  A CT maxillofacial is performed which shows an isolated right inferior orbital wall fracture.

Vitals: T 98.6 HR 85 BP 142/81  RR 14 O2 98% on RA

Prior to ENT consultation, a bedside ultrasound of the orbits is performed.  In spite of being unable to open the eye, what can you tell your consultant regarding your exam?

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Answer and Learning Points

Answer

Using ultrasound as an adjunct to your exam, you are able to tell the consultant that there is a normal appearing, reactive pupil and that the extra-ocular movements of the eye are intact. The consultant is appreciative over the phone and is happy to come in and see the patient whom after evaluation is discharged home with close outpatient follow up.

Learning Points

It is often the case where a patient suffers such significant facial trauma that a complete physical exam of the orbit due to periorbital swelling is not possible. Ultrasound can be a critical tool in these cases to provide useful information to assess for multiple potential pathologies. Previous studies have shown the ability of ocular ultrasound in trauma to detect elevated intracranial pressure (via optic nerve sheath diameter), retinal detachment, vitreous hemorrhage, and retrobulbar hematoma. It can also be used for early detection of muscular entrapment in the case of an orbital wall fracture, as well as performed serially for pupillary response in patients with significant neurological injury at risk for deterioration and potential herniation.

  • To evaluate extraocular movements:
    • Prepare the patient by laying the bed backwards and having their face parallel to the ceiling,  supporting the patient's head and neck with a pillow or blanket.
    • (Optional) Place a tegaderm over the eye. If you do, ensure there is no air between the tegaderm and the eyelid.
    • Place a small amount of ultrasound gel on the closed eyelid  and prepare the linear probe with the gain turned almost all the way up.
    • Stabilize your hand on the patient's nasal bridge or zygoma, with the probe marker to your left, and place the probe transverse on the orbit with minimal pressure being applied directly to the eye. This is very important in trauma as the area is likely painful and theoretically the patient could have a ruptured globe.
    • Adjust the depth to ensure the optic nerve is just visualized at the bottom of the screen. The anterior chamber and lens should be used as visual landmarks to ensure you are in proper location.
    • Next, have the patient look left and right, then turn the probe to a sagittal orientation and have the patient look up and down. During these maneuvers you should be evaluating for symmetric movements of the orbit in each direction.
    • If you do not appreciate symmetric movements of the orbit in all directions then you may have entrapment of an extraocular muscle.
  • To evaluate for pupillary response and shape:
    • Be sure to dim the lights in the room prior to performing this exam to allow for an adequate pupillary response.
    • Gently apply the linear probe with gel in a transverse plane just inferior to the eye, angling superiorly towards the patient's head (Depending on the location of the swelling around the eye, you can also place the probe superior to the eye, angling inferiorly towards the patient's feet).
    • Keep flattening out your probe angle relative to the skin until you have a cross section of the pupil and iris in view.
    • The pupil should be evaluated for symmetry as an asymmetric or oblong pupil could suggest globe rupture. You can then shine a light in the affected or non-affected eye (consensual light reflex) and observe the pupil for constriction.

 

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Blaivas M. Bedside emergency department ultrasonography in the evaluation of ocular pathology. Acad Emerg Med 2000;7:947-50.
    2. Blaivas M, Theodoro D, Sierzenski P. A study of bedside ocular ultrasonography in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med 2002;9(8):791-9.
    3. Kimberly HH, Shah S, Marill K, Noble V. Correlation of optic nerve sheath diameter with direct measurement of intracranial pressure. Acad Emerg Med 2008;15(2):201-4.
    4. Tayal VS, Neulander M, Norton HJ, et al. Emergency department sonographic measurement of optic nerve sheath diameter to detect findings of increased intracranial pressure in adult head injury patients. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49(4):508-14.
    5. Harries A, et al. Ultrasound assessment of extraocular movements and pupillary light reflex in ocular trauma. Am J Emerg Med 2010 28(8):956-9.
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Case # 12: Bilateral Vision Loss

A 45 year old male with poorly controlled DM presents with bilateral vision loss. His right eye vision acutely worsened 3 days ago with the sensation of a curtain moving back and forth across his visual field. Today his left eye vision acutely worsened with flashes and floaters occurring. He denies any trauma, headache, or new medications.

Vitals: T 98.6 HR 90 BP 149/87  RR 16 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound of the orbits is performed,  what is the next best step in management?

Left Eye

Left Eye

Right Eye

Right Eye

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

The ultrasound clips demonstrate hypoechoic material in the orbits bilaterally, swirling around with subtle eye movement. This is consistent with bilateral vitreous hemorrhage. The diagnosis was discussed with the patient and he was referred to ophthalmology clinic for dilated eye exam in 24 hours.

Learning Points

Vitreous hemorrhage is a common diagnosis (though usually unilateral) seen in poorly controlled diabetes. The most frequent etiologies include proliferative diabetic retinopathy, posterior vitreous detachment, and ocular trauma, with trauma more common in patients under the age of 40. Since it is difficult to obtain  a good physical exam of the posterior aspects of the eye without a dilated exam, there is high utility in the use of point of care ultrasound in evaluating for acute pathology.  It can be used to distinguish vitreous hemorrhage and retinal detachment, which have significantly different prognoses and treatment pathways. To perform an ocular ultrasound, follow these steps:

    1. Prepare the patient by laying the bed backwards and having their face parallel to the ceiling,  supporting the patient's head and neck with a pillow or blanket.
    2. Place a tegaderm over the eye (optional). If you do, ensure there is no air between the tegaderm and the eyelid.
    3. Place the ultrasound gel on the tegaderm and prepare the linear probe with the gain turned almost all the way up (this will help you visualize both retinal detachment and vitreous hemorrhage.
    4. Stabilize your hand on the patient's nasal bridge or zygoma, with the probe marker to your left, and place the probe transverse on the orbit with minimal pressure being applied directly to the eye.
    5. Adjust the depth to ensure the optic nerve is just visualized at the bottom of the screen. The anterior chamber and lens should be used as visual landmarks to ensure you are in proper location. Next, have the patient look up, down , left and right (oculokinetic echography), to assess for any abnormalities in the posterior aspects of the eye.
    6. Repeat this technique with the probe marker pointed superiorly and have the patient again look in all directions.

Retinal detachment: The common POCUS findings include a thin linear structure tethered to the optic nerve.  It flaps back and forth as the eye is moved giving it the appearance of “swaying seaweed”. This is an ophthalmologic emergency, especially if the macula is still attached,  the ophthalmologist should be immediately consulted.

Vitreous hemorrhage: You will notice a diffuse mobile opacity often described as a “snow globe” that is exacerbated with moving the eye from side to side. If this is seen in a diabetic patient with floaters, there is a high likelihood that the diagnosis is a vitreous hemorrhage. These patients will still need follow up with ophthalmology for further management, but typically there will not be an emergent intervention.

Author

This post was written by Sam Frenkel, MD, PGY-2 UCSD EM. It was reviewed by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Yoonessi R, Hussain A, Jang TB. Bedside ocular ultrasound for the detection of retinal detachment in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17(9):913-7.
    2. Dawson, Mallin. Introduction to Bedside Ultrasound, Volume 2. 2013. Apple iBook.
    3. Kilker B, Holst J, Hoffmann B. Bedside ocular ultrasound in the emergency department. Eur J Emerg Med. 2014;21(4):246-253.
    4. Shinar Z, Chan L, Orlinsky M. Use of ocular ultrasound for the evaluation of retinal detachment. J Emerg Med. 2011;40(1):53-57. 
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Case # 11: Look and You Will Find

A 32 year old healthy female with no past medical history presents to the emergency department with left sided flank pain x 2 days.

Vitals: T 98.6 HR 72 BP 126/82  RR 12 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound of the left kidney is performed, what is the next best step in management?

Q40_Simple cyst

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

The ultrasound image demonstrates a simple cyst located in the cortex of the kidney. The cyst can be described as anechoic, homogenous, with thin and smooth walls, and would be a type I lesion according to the Bosniak classification system (image below). There is no evidence to suggest obstructing hydronephrosis. The Bosniak classification for renal cysts was developed in the 1980s as an attempt to standardize the description and management of complex renal lesions. Based on classification of the renal lesion, the likelihood of malignancy can also be predicted. While the Bosniak classification was initially described and validated with CT imaging, newer data suggests that ultrasound may be sufficient to follow renal cysts that are minimally complex (Bosniak I & II).

Learning Points

 

    • Mild hydronephrosis

      Mild hydronephrosis

      Simple renal cyst Bosniak I

      Simple renal cyst Bosniak I

    • Given the bedside ultrasound demonstrates a Bosniak I lesion in the left kidney, the patient can be reassured that this finding is very unlikely to be malignant and she can be referred to a primary care provider for follow up in several weeks for formal outpatient renal ultrasound.
    • Incidental findings are frequently found on point of care ultrasound and while most of them are benign it is of utmost importance to ensure proper follow up when identified. Specifically with renal cysts, this is a common occurrence and most can be followed with renal ultrasound as long as they are simple (Bosniak I or II).
    • One pitfall to be aware of is that renal cysts can be mistaken for hydronephrosis and lead to unnecessary imaging and work up (especially in patients presenting with acute flank pain). Therefore it is critical to note the differences between a simple renal cyst and hydronephrosis. As seen in the comparison above renal cysts tend to (but not always) be located in the renal cortex and are both spherical and very well circumscribed. On the other hand, hydronephrosis is centrally located, and tends to branch outwards like a tree. If there is uncertainty, I recommend performing evaluation in both transverse and longitudinal planes to fully characterize your finding. The opposite kidney in the patient can also be used for comparison.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

1. Muglia VF, Westphalen AC. (2014) Bosniak classification for complex renal cysts: history and critical analysis. Radiol Bras 47(6): 368–373.

2. McGuire BB, Fitzpatrick JM. (2010) The diagnosis and management of complex renal cysts. Curr Opin Urol 20:349–354.

3. Case courtesy of Dr Matt Skalski, Radiopaedia.org. From the case rID: 20989

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Case # 10: A Mechanical Issue

A 32 year old male was carrying a heavy pipe overhead with his right arm and slipped falling forward, onto the right side. He notes pain in the right shoulder, worse with any movement. His right arm is flexed and internally rotated for comfort.

Vitals: T 98.6 HR 95 BP 143/91  RR 14 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound of the right shoulder is performed, what is the next best step in management?

Screen Shot 2017-11-18 at 11.09.45 AM

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

Shoulder dislocation reduction. The ultrasound image shows anterior displacement of the humeral head with respect to the glenoid fossa consistent with an anterior shoulder dislocation. A hematoma is also noted within the joint space which is very commonly associated with a traumatic shoulder dislocation. 

Ultrasound diagnosis of anterior shoulder dislocation

Learning Points

    • Ultrasound is useful for both the initial diagnosis and reduction confirmation of a shoulder dislocation, as well as for intra-articular injection of local anesthetic; however in a traumatic dislocation, an initial x-ray should be obtained to evaluate for any associated fracture.
    • To perform the exam, a low frequency curvilinear transducer should be used. The operator should stand behind the patient, on the side of the affected shoulder, and place the ultrasound system directly in front of the patient for easy visualization. The probe should be placed on the posterior aspect of the scapula, parallel and just inferior to the scapular spine. This will allow direct visualization of the glenohumeral joint.
  • Proper probe placement for evaluation of glenohumeral joint.
    • In a normal shoulder the glenoid and humeral head articulate nicely and this can be appreciated on ultrasound with internal and external rotation of the patient's arm, however with dislocation, the humeral head and glenoid will not be aligned. In anterior dislocation, the humeral head will be deep to the glenoid, while in a posterior dislocation, the humeral head will be more superficial to the glenoid.
  • Normal glenohumeral ultrasound anatomy
    • Ultrasound is especially useful to confirm successful shoulder relocation and prevent both a prolonged stay in the emergency department waiting for a post reduction x-ray, as well as re-sedation if this was required for a difficult shoulder reduction.
    • Lastly, this same ultrasound view can be used for in-plane needle guidance to provide intra-articular anesthesia using a lateral needle entry approach.
    • For a 5 minute video tutorial on  ultrasound for shoulder dislocation , click here to watch this excellent video at 5 Minute Sono.
In vivo shoulder reduction!

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

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Case # 9: A Transplant Dilemma

A 52 year old male with a h/o kidney transplant presents to the emergency department with pain over his transplanted kidney site (right pelvic region). He also notes increased weakness, nausea and a significant decrease in urine output. He denies any fever. He states he is compliant with his anti-rejection medications.

Vitals: T 99.0 HR 105 BP 165/91  RR 18 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound is performed, what is the next best step in management?

tx_severe hydro

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

Insertion of foley catheter. The clip above demonstrates severe hydronephrosis of the patient's transplanted kidney. A foley was inserted in the emergency department with immediate output of 1.5 L of clear urine. The patient was found to be in renal failure secondary to his urinary outlet obstruction. He was admitted to transplant surgery and his renal function improved over the next day; he was discharged home with a leg bag and urology follow up. Below is a repeat ultrasound of his transplanted kidney after drainage of his bladder: 

Learning Points

    • Urinary obstruction in a transplanted kidney can be missed initially as pain over the patient's graft site and decreased urine output is easily contributed to possible rejection or infection.
    • The differential diagnosis of acute renal failure in the transplanted kidney is broad (see table below) and emergency department management should include a thorough evaluation for prerenal, intrinsic and post renal causes, in consultation with a transplant service.
    • All renal transplant patients presenting with acute renal failure should have a formal renal ultrasound with doppler to evaluate the graft however often this is not available immediately and a bedside ultrasound can assist with rapid identification of acute urinary obstruction.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Kadambi PV., Brennan DC., Chon J. (2017). Evaluation and diagnosis of the patient with renal allograft dysfunction. In T.W. Post, B. Murphy, & A. Lam (Eds.), UptoDate. Available from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/evaluation-and-diagnosis-of-the-patient-with-renal-allograft-dysfunction
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Case # 8: A Case of Comparision

A 40 year old male presents to the emergency department with pain to the entire right thumb and wrist for 1 day.  He notes that he suffered a small puncture wound to his right thumb 1 day ago while working on his car.  The patient has notable circumferential, non-erythematous swelling to his right thumb with tenderness along the flexor tendon. There is also fullness of the dorsum of his wrist. He is holding his fingers flexed and has pain radiating into the wrist with any movement of his fingers or wrist, especially with extension of his fingers.

Vitals: T 98.7 HR 90 BP 132/81  RR 13 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound is performed, what is the next best step in management?

Normal Left Thumb in Long Axis

Normal Left Thumb in Long Axis

Abnormal Right Thumb in Long Axis

Abnormal Right Thumb in Long Axis

Answer and Learning Points

Answer

Empirical antibiotic therapy and orthopedic surgery consultation for infectious flexor tenosynovitis (FTS).  The patient meets 4 out of 4 Kanavel's signs and has ultrasound evidence of FTS suggested by a thickened tendon with surrounding anechoic fluid.

Short Axis View of Right 1st Digit demonstrating hypoechoic fluid surrounding tendon.

Learning Points

    • FTS is often a clinical diagnosis and examination (Kanavel's signs) is thought to have high sensitivity (91.4-97.1%) but low specificity (51.3-69.2%) for infectious FTS [2]; however a negative exam does not rule it out completely.
      • Kanavel's signs include:
        • Finger held in slight flexion
        • Fusiform swelling
        • Tenderness along the flexor tendon sheath
        • Pain with passive extension of the digit
    • FTS is treated with empirical antibiotic  therapy as well as early surgical debridement and drainage. Delays in diagnosis can lead to local spread of infection, compartment syndrome and necrosis.
    • While there is not high quality evidence describing the use of emergency department point of care ultrasound (POCUS) to diagnose FTS, previous radiographic studies have found ultrasound to be more sensitive than clinical exam for detecting tenosynovitis [3].
    • Common ultrasound findings for FTS include:
      • Hypoechoic or anechoic edema or debris within the tendon sheath
      • +/- thickening of the tendon sheath
    • The ultrasound examination should be performed using a linear probe, examining the affected tendon (and normal tendon on other hand for comparison), in both the longitudinal and transverse plane.
      • Small rocking or fanning motions should be used to ensure perpendicular orientation of the probe to the tendon to avoid artifact secondary to anisotropy.
    • As in all uses of POCUS in the emergency department setting, findings should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical examination and history when evaluating for infectious FTS. We believe POCUS for infectious FTS can be used to increase diagnostic certainty and even expedite care and aggressive treatment however a normal exam should not be used to rule out this diagnosis.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Padrez, K., Bress, J., Johnson, B., & Nagdev, A. (2015). Bedside Ultrasound Identification of Infectious Flexor Tenosynovitis in the Emergency Department. Western Journal Of Emergency Medicine, 16(2), 260-262. doi:10.5811/westjem.2015.1.24474
    2. Kennedy CD, e. (2017). Differentiation Between Pyogenic Flexor Tenosynovitis and Other Finger Infections. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 21 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28720000
    3. Hmamouchi I, Bahiri R, Srifi N, et al. A comparison of ultrasound and clinical examination in the detection of flexor tenosynovitis in early arthritis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12(1):91.
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Case # 7: A Case of Asymmetry

A 22 year old male presents to the emergency department with a sore throat for 1 week. The pain is predominately on the left side and is associated with difficulty opening his mouth and fever. He was placed on amoxicillin 3 days ago but notes that his symptoms have progressed. He appears uncomfortable.

Vitals: T 101.4 HR 105 BP 132/81  RR 14 O2 98% on RA

A bedside ultrasound is performed, what is the next best step in management?

PTA

Answer and Learning Point

Answer

Incision and drainage. The patient presents with lateralizing pharyngitis symptoms associated with fever and trismus concerning for peritonsillar abscess (PTA). The ultrasound clip demonstrates a well circumscribed, hypoechoic fluid collection abutting the left tonsil confirming this diagnosis (see color overlay below).

Previously, physicians relied solely on the physical exam findings of peritonsillar swelling and uvular deviation to make the diagnosis of PTA. However, this approach lacks accuracy, with studies showing a sensitivity and specificity of 75% and 50% respectively [1]. This uncertainty leads to increased CT utilization, repeat drainage attempts and ENT consultation. Intraoral ultrasound is a novel technique that can be used by emergency physicians (EP), both for diagnosis and drainage of PTA. A recent randomized control trial found the use of intraoral ultrasound (vs. traditional landmark technique) to be significantly more reliable for differentiating between PTA and peritonsillar cellulitis. Additionally, this study also demonstrated increased success in PTA drainage by EPs with the use of intraoral ultrasound guidance [2].

Data from Costantino et al

Learning Points

    • An endocavitary probe should be used when PTA is suspected to differentiated between PTA and peritonsillar cellulitis; and assist with drainage if necessary.
    • If an endocavitary probe is not available, or if the patient cannot open their mouth wide enough to pass the probe, an alternative approach, known as the telescopic submandibular approach can also be used and is explained here.
    • When using ultrasound, the distance from the oral mucosa to the center of the PTA should be measure. The plastic sheath of an 18-gauge needle (preferably a spinal needle to allow the barrel of the syringe to be outside of the patients mouth) should be cut to this length to prevent puncturing any deeper structures during drainage.

Author

This post was written by Michael Macias, MD, Ultrasound Fellow at UCSD.

References

    1. Scott PM, e. (2017). Diagnosis of peritonsillar infections: a prospective study of ultrasound, computerized tomography and clinical diagnosis. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10435129
    2. Costantino TG, e. (2017). Randomized trial comparing intraoral ultrasound to landmark-based needle aspiration in patients with suspected peritonsillar abscess. - PubMed - NCBI . Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2 October 2017, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22687177